AI Applications and its Web Search Engines

Description

AI applications include advanced web search engines (e.g., Google, recommendation systems used by YouTube, Amazon and Netflix), understanding human speech such as Siri and Alexa, self-driving cars automated decision-making and competing at the highest level in strategic game systems such as chess and Go. As machines become increasingly capable, tasks considered to require "intelligence" are often removed from the definition of AI, a phenomenon known as the AI effect. For instance, optical character recognition is frequently excluded from things considered to be AIhaving become a routine technology. Artificial intelligence was founded as an academic discipline in 1956, and in the years since has experienced several waves of optimism followed by disappointment and the loss of funding (known as an "AI winter"),[followed by new approaches, success and renewed funding. AI research has tried and discarded many different approaches since its founding, including simulating the brain, modeling human problem solving, formal logic, large databases of knowledge and imitating animal behavior. In the first decades of the 21st century, highly mathematical-statistical machine learning has dominated the field, and this technique has proved highly successful, helping to solve many challenging problems throughout industry and academia

The various sub-fields of AI research are centred on particular goals and the use of particular tools. The traditional goals of AI research include reasoning, knowledge representation, planning, learning, natural language processing, perception, and the ability to move and manipulate objects general intelligence the ability to solve an arbitrary problem is among the field's long-term goals to solve these problems, AI researchers have adapted and integrated a wide range of problem-solving techniques including search and mathematical optimization, formal logic, artificial neural networks, and methods based on statistics, probability and economics. AI also draws upon computer science, psychology, linguistics, philosophy, and many other fields. The study of mechanical or "formal" reasoning began with philosophers and mathematicians in antiquity. The study of mathematical logic led directly to Alan Turing's theory of computation, which suggested that a machine, by shuffling symbols as simple as "0" and "1", could simulate any conceivable act of mathematical deduction. This insight that digital computers can simulate any process of formal reasoning is known as the Church-Turing thesis this, along with concurrent discoveries in neurobiology, information theory and cybernetics, led researchers to consider the possibility of building an electronic brain. The first work that is now generally recognized as AI was McCullough and Pitts' 1943 formal design for Turing-complete "artificial neurons".

By the 1950s, two visions for how to achieve machine intelligence emerged. One vision, known as Symbolic AI or GOFAI, was to use computers to create a symbolic representation of the world and systems that could reason about the world. Proponents included Allen Newell, Herbert A. Simon, and Marvin Minsky. Closely associated with this approach was the "heuristic search" approach, which likened intelligence to a problem of exploring a space of possibilities for answers. The second vision, known as the connectionist approach, sought to achieve intelligence through learning. Researchers in the 1960s and the 1970s were convinced that symbolic approaches would eventually succeed in creating a machine with artificial general intelligence and considered this the goal of their field. Herbert Simon predicted, "Machines will be capable, within twenty years, of doing any work a man can do". Marvin Minsky agreed, writing, within a generation. the problem of creating 'artificial intelligence' will substantially be solved". They had failed to recognize the difficulty of some of the remaining tasks. Progress slowed and in 1974, in response to the criticism of Sir James Light hill and ongoing pressure from the US Congress to fund more productive projects, both the U.S. and British governments cut off exploratory research in AI.

Thanks & Regards
John Greesham
Journal Coordinator
International Journal of Innovative Research in Computer and Communication Engineering